Energy budgeting and life cycle assessment of cashew cultivation under different planting densities
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Published
Apr 11, 2023
Manjunatha Krishnappa
Mundakochi Gangadhara Nayak
Shamsudheen Mangalassery
Preethi Palpandian
Muralidhara Bommanahalli Munivenkata Siddanna Savadi
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8477-4956
Muralidhara Bommanahalli Munivenkata Siddanna Savadi
Abstract
Energy budgeting is important for determining the sustainability and vulnerability of a crop production system. In the present study, an assessment of the energy requirements for cashew cultivation under three different planting densities was carried out during 2015-20. The study revealed that the total input energy consumption for cashew cultivation ranged from 75292.68 to 120903.58 MJ/ha. The energy productivity from 0.04 to 0.13 kg/MJ and energy use efficiency varied from 8.46 to 24.61% under three planting densities. The highest energy was consumed in terms of chemical fertilizers for all the planting densities followed by fuel (diesel), machinery, farmyard manure (FYM), pesticides, petrol and human energy. The analysis revealed the need to implement improved management practices to enhance the energy efficiency by reducing the energy consumption in inputs, by optimizing energy consumption and/or improving the crop yield by optimizing the cultivation methods and switching from non-renewable sources to renewable sources of energy. Among the three different planting densities, 2.5x2.5 m spacing consumed the highest energy followed by 5x5 m and 7.5x7.5m spacing. However, the planting density of 2.5x2.5 m spacing was more energy efficient over the years due to more yields per unit area.
How to Cite
Krishnappa, M., Nayak, M. G., Mangalassery, S., Palpandian, P., Bommanahalli Munivenkata, M., & Savadi, S. (2023). Energy budgeting and life cycle assessment of cashew cultivation under different planting densities . Environment Conservation Journal, 24(3), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.36953/ECJ.14622444
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Keywords
Cashew, Energy input, Energy analysis, Energy equivalents, Specific energy
References
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Anonymous. (2014). Cashew Handbook - Global Perspective. 4th edition, Copyright, Foretell Business Solutions Private Limited. Available at www.cashewinfo.com. Retrieved from
Azam Khan, M., & Singh, G. (1996). Energy inputs and crop production in Western Pakistan. Energy, 21(1), 45-53.
Balogh, S. B., & Hall, C. A. S. (2016). Food and Energy. In G. Steier & K. K. Patel (Eds.), International Food Law and Policy (pp. 321-358). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Banaeian, N., Omid, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2011). Energy and economic analysis of greenhouse strawberry production in Tehran province of Iran. Energy Conversion and Management, 52(2), 1020-1025.
Bartzas, G., & Komnitsas, K. (2018). Energy flow analysis in agriculture; the case of irrigated pistachio production in Greece. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 28, 73-80.
Beigi, M., Torki‐Harchegani, M., & Ebrahimi, R. (2016). Sensitivity analysis of energy inputs and cost assessment for almond production in Iran. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 35(2), 582-588.
Demircan, V., Ekinci, K., Keener, H. M., Akbolat, D., & Ekinci, C. (2006). Energy and economic analysis of sweet cherry production in Turkey: A case study from Isparta province. Energy Conversion and Management, 47(13), 1761-1769.
Erdal, G., Esengün, K., Erdal, H., & Gündüz, O. (2007). Energy use and economical analysis of sugar beet production in Tokat province of Turkey. Energy, 32(1), 35-41. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.01.007
Esengun, K., Gündüz, O., & Erdal, G. (2007). Input–output energy analysis in dry apricot production of Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management, 48(2), 592-598. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.06.006
Fadavi, R., Keyhani, A., & Mohtasebi, S. (2011). An analysis of energy use, input costs and relation between energy inputs and yield of apple orchard. Research in Agricultural Engineering, 57(3), 88-96.
FAOSTAT. (2018). Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/ en/#data/QC(accessed 25/03/2020).
Hall, C. A. (2011). Introduction to special issue on new studies in EROI (Energy Return on Investment). Sustainability, 3(10), 1773-1777.
Hasanzadeh, A., & Rahbar, S. (2005). Study of energy flow in apple orchards Azarbaijane Gharbi Province. Paper presented at the The 4th Iranian Congress on Horticultural Science, Ferdosi Mashad University, Mashad, Iran.
Hatirli, S. A., Ozkan, B., & Fert, C. (2005). An econometric analysis of energy input–output in Turkish agriculture. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 9(6), 608-623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2004.07.001
Hatirli, S. A., Ozkan, B., & Fert, C. (2006). Energy inputs and crop yield relationship in greenhouse tomato production. Renewable Energy, 31(4), 427-438.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2005.04.007
IS:9164. (1979). Indian Standard IS 9164, Guide for estimating cost of farm machinery operation.
Kalaivanan, D., & Rupa, T. R. (2017). Organic cultivation of cashew. In P. L. Saroj (Ed.), Cashew: improvement, production and processing (pp. 295-322). New Delhi: Astral International Pvt Ltd.
Karale, D., Khambalkar, V., Bhende, S., Amle, S. B., & Wankhede, P. S. (2008). Energy economic of small farming crop production operations. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(4), 476-482.
Khan, M. A., & Singh, G. (1997). Energy inputs and potential for agricultural production in western Pakistan. Agricultural Systems, 54(3), 341-356.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-521X(96)00067-4
Kizilaslan, H. (2009). Input–output energy analysis of cherries production in Tokat Province of Turkey. Applied Energy, 86(7), 1354-1358.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.07.009
Mangalassery, S., Kalaivanan, D., & Philip, S. P. (2019). Effect of inorganic fertilisers and organic amendments on soil aggregation and biochemical characteristics in a weathered tropical soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 187, 144-151. doi:10.1016/j.still.2018.12.008
Mangalassery, S., Nayak, M. G., Adiga, J. D., Preethi, P., & Muralidhara, B. M. (2019). Nutrient management in cashew, Technical bulletin No. 1/2019. Retrieved from
Martin-Gorriz, B., Soto-García, M., & Martínez-Alvarez, V. (2014). Energy and greenhouse-gas emissions in irrigated agriculture of SE (southeast) Spain. Effects of alternative water supply scenarios. Energy, 77, 478-488.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.031
Mohammadi, A., & Omid, M. (2010). Economical analysis and relation between energy inputs and yield of greenhouse cucumber production in Iran. Applied Energy, 87(1), 191-196. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.07.021
Mohammadi, A., Tabatabaeefar, A., Shahin, S., Rafiee, S., & Keyhani, A. (2008). Energy use and economical analysis of potato production in Iran a case study: Ardabil province. Energy Conversion and Management, 49(12), 3566-3570.
Mohammadshirazi, A., Akram, A., Rafiee, S., Mousavi Avval, S. H., & Bagheri Kalhor, E. (2012). An analysis of energy use and relation between energy inputs and yield in tangerine production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), 4515-4521.
Nassiri, S. M., & Singh, S. (2009). Study on energy use efficiency for paddy crop using data envelopment analysis (DEA) technique. Applied Energy, 86(7), 1320-1325.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.10.007
Nayak, M. G., Mangalassery, S., & Preethi, P. (2019). Innovative production technologies to enhance productivity and income of cashew farmers. The Cashew and Cocoa Journal, VIII(3), 8-18.
Nayak, M. G., & Savadi, S. (2019). Global status of cashew production and Trade: Challenges and strategies for India to regain world leadership. Agriculture Today: The National Agriculture Magazine.
Ozkan, B., Akcaoz, H., & Karadeniz, F. (2004). Energy requirement and economic analysis of citrus production in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management, 45(11), 1821-1830. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2003.10.002
Paramesh, V., Arunachalam, V., & Nath, A. J. (2019). Enhancing ecosystem services and energy use efficiency under organic and conventional nutrient management system to a sustainable arecanut based cropping system. Energy, 187, 115902.
Pimentel, D. (1980). Energy inputs in corn production. Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture, 67-84.
Piringer, G., & Steinberg, L. J. (2006). Reevaluation of energy use in wheat production in the United States. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 10(1‐2), 149-167.
Proebsting, E. L. (1980). Energy inputs in cherry production. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture (pp. 251-254): CRC Press Boca Raton, FL.
Rafiee, S., Mousavi Avval, S. H., & Mohammadi, A. (2010). Modeling and sensitivity analysis of energy inputs for apple production in Iran. Energy, 35(8), 3301-3306. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.04.015
Rajesh, U. M., Mudasir, A., Raghuvirsinh, P. P., & Sharad, K. N. (2018). Energy audit application for rice-wheat croppingsystem. Oriental Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 11(4), 209-218.
Rupa, T. R. (2017). Nutrient and water management. In P. L. Saroj (Ed.), Cashew: improvement, production and processing (pp. 233-252). New Delhi: Astral International Pvt Ltd.
Sathe, S. K. (1994). Solubilization and electrophoretic characterization of cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) proteins. Food Chemistry, 51(3), 319-324. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(94)90033-7
Sharma, R. K., Bhattacharya, T. K., Akanksha, K., Priyanka, C., Sandip, M., & Deepshikha, A. (2020). Energy use pattern in wheat crop production system among different farmer groups of the Himalayan Tarai region. Current Science, 118(3), 444-448.
Sharma, V. K. (2004). Trees and protection of environment. New Delhi, India: Deep and Deep Publications.
Singh, J. M. (2000). On farm energy use pattern in different cropping systems in Haryana, India. (Master of Science), International Institute of Management, University of Flensburg, Germany,
Singh, M., Pal, S., Thakur, R., & Verma, U. (1997). Energy input-output relationship of cropping systems. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 67(6), 262-264.
Singh, S., & Mittal, J. P. (1992). Energy in production agriculture. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.
Strapatsa, A. V., Nanos, G. D., & Tsatsarelis, C. A. (2006). Energy flow for integrated apple production in Greece. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 116(3), 176-180. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.02.003
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., & Keyhani, A. (2012). Energy consumption flow and econometric models of two plum cultivars productions in Tehran province of Iran. Energy, 44(1), 211-216.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.06.036
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., Keyhani, A., & Ebrahimi, A. (2013). Energy and economic assessment of prune production in Tehran province of Iran. Journal of Cleaner Production, 39, 280-284.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.052
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., Keyhani, A., & Heidari, M. D. (2013). Energy use pattern and sensitivity analysis of energy inputs and input costs for pear production in Iran. Renewable Energy, 51, 7-12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.077
Taki, M., Ajabshirchi, Y., Mobtaker, H. G., & Abdi, R. (2012). Energy consumption, input–output relationship and cost analysis for greenhouse productions in Esfahan Province of Iran. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 485-501.
Yadukumar, N., Rejani, R., & Nandan, S. L. (2008). Studies on green manuring in high density cashew orchards. Journal of Plantation Crops, 36(3), 265-269.
Anonymous. (2014). Cashew Handbook - Global Perspective. 4th edition, Copyright, Foretell Business Solutions Private Limited. Available at www.cashewinfo.com. Retrieved from
Azam Khan, M., & Singh, G. (1996). Energy inputs and crop production in Western Pakistan. Energy, 21(1), 45-53.
Balogh, S. B., & Hall, C. A. S. (2016). Food and Energy. In G. Steier & K. K. Patel (Eds.), International Food Law and Policy (pp. 321-358). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Banaeian, N., Omid, M., & Ahmadi, H. (2011). Energy and economic analysis of greenhouse strawberry production in Tehran province of Iran. Energy Conversion and Management, 52(2), 1020-1025.
Bartzas, G., & Komnitsas, K. (2018). Energy flow analysis in agriculture; the case of irrigated pistachio production in Greece. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 28, 73-80.
Beigi, M., Torki‐Harchegani, M., & Ebrahimi, R. (2016). Sensitivity analysis of energy inputs and cost assessment for almond production in Iran. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 35(2), 582-588.
Demircan, V., Ekinci, K., Keener, H. M., Akbolat, D., & Ekinci, C. (2006). Energy and economic analysis of sweet cherry production in Turkey: A case study from Isparta province. Energy Conversion and Management, 47(13), 1761-1769.
Erdal, G., Esengün, K., Erdal, H., & Gündüz, O. (2007). Energy use and economical analysis of sugar beet production in Tokat province of Turkey. Energy, 32(1), 35-41. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.01.007
Esengun, K., Gündüz, O., & Erdal, G. (2007). Input–output energy analysis in dry apricot production of Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management, 48(2), 592-598. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2006.06.006
Fadavi, R., Keyhani, A., & Mohtasebi, S. (2011). An analysis of energy use, input costs and relation between energy inputs and yield of apple orchard. Research in Agricultural Engineering, 57(3), 88-96.
FAOSTAT. (2018). Available at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/ en/#data/QC(accessed 25/03/2020).
Hall, C. A. (2011). Introduction to special issue on new studies in EROI (Energy Return on Investment). Sustainability, 3(10), 1773-1777.
Hasanzadeh, A., & Rahbar, S. (2005). Study of energy flow in apple orchards Azarbaijane Gharbi Province. Paper presented at the The 4th Iranian Congress on Horticultural Science, Ferdosi Mashad University, Mashad, Iran.
Hatirli, S. A., Ozkan, B., & Fert, C. (2005). An econometric analysis of energy input–output in Turkish agriculture. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 9(6), 608-623. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2004.07.001
Hatirli, S. A., Ozkan, B., & Fert, C. (2006). Energy inputs and crop yield relationship in greenhouse tomato production. Renewable Energy, 31(4), 427-438.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2005.04.007
IS:9164. (1979). Indian Standard IS 9164, Guide for estimating cost of farm machinery operation.
Kalaivanan, D., & Rupa, T. R. (2017). Organic cultivation of cashew. In P. L. Saroj (Ed.), Cashew: improvement, production and processing (pp. 295-322). New Delhi: Astral International Pvt Ltd.
Karale, D., Khambalkar, V., Bhende, S., Amle, S. B., & Wankhede, P. S. (2008). Energy economic of small farming crop production operations. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(4), 476-482.
Khan, M. A., & Singh, G. (1997). Energy inputs and potential for agricultural production in western Pakistan. Agricultural Systems, 54(3), 341-356.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-521X(96)00067-4
Kizilaslan, H. (2009). Input–output energy analysis of cherries production in Tokat Province of Turkey. Applied Energy, 86(7), 1354-1358.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.07.009
Mangalassery, S., Kalaivanan, D., & Philip, S. P. (2019). Effect of inorganic fertilisers and organic amendments on soil aggregation and biochemical characteristics in a weathered tropical soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 187, 144-151. doi:10.1016/j.still.2018.12.008
Mangalassery, S., Nayak, M. G., Adiga, J. D., Preethi, P., & Muralidhara, B. M. (2019). Nutrient management in cashew, Technical bulletin No. 1/2019. Retrieved from
Martin-Gorriz, B., Soto-García, M., & Martínez-Alvarez, V. (2014). Energy and greenhouse-gas emissions in irrigated agriculture of SE (southeast) Spain. Effects of alternative water supply scenarios. Energy, 77, 478-488.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.031
Mohammadi, A., & Omid, M. (2010). Economical analysis and relation between energy inputs and yield of greenhouse cucumber production in Iran. Applied Energy, 87(1), 191-196. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.07.021
Mohammadi, A., Tabatabaeefar, A., Shahin, S., Rafiee, S., & Keyhani, A. (2008). Energy use and economical analysis of potato production in Iran a case study: Ardabil province. Energy Conversion and Management, 49(12), 3566-3570.
Mohammadshirazi, A., Akram, A., Rafiee, S., Mousavi Avval, S. H., & Bagheri Kalhor, E. (2012). An analysis of energy use and relation between energy inputs and yield in tangerine production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), 4515-4521.
Nassiri, S. M., & Singh, S. (2009). Study on energy use efficiency for paddy crop using data envelopment analysis (DEA) technique. Applied Energy, 86(7), 1320-1325.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.10.007
Nayak, M. G., Mangalassery, S., & Preethi, P. (2019). Innovative production technologies to enhance productivity and income of cashew farmers. The Cashew and Cocoa Journal, VIII(3), 8-18.
Nayak, M. G., & Savadi, S. (2019). Global status of cashew production and Trade: Challenges and strategies for India to regain world leadership. Agriculture Today: The National Agriculture Magazine.
Ozkan, B., Akcaoz, H., & Karadeniz, F. (2004). Energy requirement and economic analysis of citrus production in Turkey. Energy Conversion and Management, 45(11), 1821-1830. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2003.10.002
Paramesh, V., Arunachalam, V., & Nath, A. J. (2019). Enhancing ecosystem services and energy use efficiency under organic and conventional nutrient management system to a sustainable arecanut based cropping system. Energy, 187, 115902.
Pimentel, D. (1980). Energy inputs in corn production. Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture, 67-84.
Piringer, G., & Steinberg, L. J. (2006). Reevaluation of energy use in wheat production in the United States. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 10(1‐2), 149-167.
Proebsting, E. L. (1980). Energy inputs in cherry production. In D. Pimentel (Ed.), Handbook of energy utilization in agriculture (pp. 251-254): CRC Press Boca Raton, FL.
Rafiee, S., Mousavi Avval, S. H., & Mohammadi, A. (2010). Modeling and sensitivity analysis of energy inputs for apple production in Iran. Energy, 35(8), 3301-3306. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.04.015
Rajesh, U. M., Mudasir, A., Raghuvirsinh, P. P., & Sharad, K. N. (2018). Energy audit application for rice-wheat croppingsystem. Oriental Journal of Computer Science and Technology, 11(4), 209-218.
Rupa, T. R. (2017). Nutrient and water management. In P. L. Saroj (Ed.), Cashew: improvement, production and processing (pp. 233-252). New Delhi: Astral International Pvt Ltd.
Sathe, S. K. (1994). Solubilization and electrophoretic characterization of cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) proteins. Food Chemistry, 51(3), 319-324. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(94)90033-7
Sharma, R. K., Bhattacharya, T. K., Akanksha, K., Priyanka, C., Sandip, M., & Deepshikha, A. (2020). Energy use pattern in wheat crop production system among different farmer groups of the Himalayan Tarai region. Current Science, 118(3), 444-448.
Sharma, V. K. (2004). Trees and protection of environment. New Delhi, India: Deep and Deep Publications.
Singh, J. M. (2000). On farm energy use pattern in different cropping systems in Haryana, India. (Master of Science), International Institute of Management, University of Flensburg, Germany,
Singh, M., Pal, S., Thakur, R., & Verma, U. (1997). Energy input-output relationship of cropping systems. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 67(6), 262-264.
Singh, S., & Mittal, J. P. (1992). Energy in production agriculture. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.
Strapatsa, A. V., Nanos, G. D., & Tsatsarelis, C. A. (2006). Energy flow for integrated apple production in Greece. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 116(3), 176-180. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.02.003
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., & Keyhani, A. (2012). Energy consumption flow and econometric models of two plum cultivars productions in Tehran province of Iran. Energy, 44(1), 211-216.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.06.036
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., Keyhani, A., & Ebrahimi, A. (2013). Energy and economic assessment of prune production in Tehran province of Iran. Journal of Cleaner Production, 39, 280-284.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.052
Tabatabaie, S. M. H., Rafiee, S., Keyhani, A., & Heidari, M. D. (2013). Energy use pattern and sensitivity analysis of energy inputs and input costs for pear production in Iran. Renewable Energy, 51, 7-12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.08.077
Taki, M., Ajabshirchi, Y., Mobtaker, H. G., & Abdi, R. (2012). Energy consumption, input–output relationship and cost analysis for greenhouse productions in Esfahan Province of Iran. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 485-501.
Yadukumar, N., Rejani, R., & Nandan, S. L. (2008). Studies on green manuring in high density cashew orchards. Journal of Plantation Crops, 36(3), 265-269.
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