Main Article Content
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to identify the phytochemical constituents Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaves and evaluate their antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities. The antibacterial properties of Azadirachta indica leaf extract were assessed using solvents such as ethanol, ethyl acetate, methanol and distilled water. These extracts were tested against two bacterial strains: Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus mutans. The results indicated that the ethyl acetate extract exhibited the highest zone of inhibition against both bacterial strains. Specifically, the zone for S. aureus ranged from 15.66-20.30 mm, while for S. mutans, it ranged from 21.50-27.56 mm. These finding demonstrate that A. indica possesses significant antimicrobial activity against both bacterial strains, with the ethyl acetate extract showing the most Pronounced inhibitory effect. Given its superior antibacterial activity, the ethyl acetate extract was further selected for the evaluation of its anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, the chemical constituents responsible for these bioactivities were found out by using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).
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References
- Al-Hashemi, Z.S.S. & Hossain, M.A. (2016). Biological activities of different Neem leaves crude extracts used locally in Ayurvedic medicine. Pacific Science Review A: Natural Science and Engineering, 18(2), 128-131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psra.2016.09.013
- Ali, E., Islam, M.S., Hossen, M.I., Khatun, M.M. & Islam, M.A. (2021). Extract of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves exhibits bactericidal effect against multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria of poultry. Veterinary medicine and science, 7(5), 1921-1927. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.511
- Andersa, K. N., Tamiru, M., Teka, T. A., Ali, I. M., Chane, K. T., Regasa, T. K. & Ahmed, E. H. (2024). Proximate composition, some phytochemical constituents, potential uses, and safety of neem leaf flour: A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 12, 6929-6937. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.4336
- Badria, F.A .& Zidan, O.A. (2004). Natural products for dental caries prevention. Journal of Medicinal Food, 7(3), 381-384. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2004.7.381
- Chaudhary, P., Sharma, R., Rupanar, S., Jadhav, S., Bongade, A., Shinde, P. & Gavit, S. (2023). Preparation and Evaluation of Herbal Mouthwash Containing Hydroalcoholic Extract of Pongamiapinnata. Asian Journal of Biological and Life Sciences, 12(1), 173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5530/ajbls.2023.12.23
- CLSI (2018). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated From Animals. 5th ed. CLSI Standard VET01. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Pennsylvania, USA.e4
- Durgapal, M. & Kumar, M. (2024). A case study on usage patterns of wild edible plants in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya. African Journal of Biological Sciences, 6(13), 6780-6797.
- Durgapal, M., Kumar, M. & Arya, A.K. (2024). Traditional indigenous values of ethnobotanical plants preserved in selected sacred groves of the Almora District (Western Himalayas), Uttarakhand, India. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 27(48), 1-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32859/era.27.48.1-16
- Ezeonu, C.S. & Ejikeme, C.M. (2016). Qualitative and quantitative determination of phytochemical contents of indigenous Nigerian softwoods. New Journal of Science, 2016, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5601327
- Gunathilake, K.D.P.P., Ranaweera, K.K.D.S. & Rupasinghe, H.V. (2018). In-vitro anti-inflammatory properties of selected green leavesy vegetables. Biomedicines, 6(4), 107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines6040107
- Hashim, N., Abdullah, S., Hassan, L.S., Ghazali, S.R. & Jalil, R. (2021). A study of neem leaves: Identification of method and solvent in extraction. Materials Today: Proceedings, 42, 217-221. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.726
- Idowu, A.O., Igbokwe, N.H., Abiodun, O.A. & Ofomata, C. (2021). Herbal mouthwash formulated with the leaf extract of Jatropha gossypiifolia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae) exhibited in-vitro antimicrobial activity against selected oral pathogens. Journal of Pharmacy & Bioresources, 18(3), 207-214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jpb.v18i3.5
- Islam, T., Hasan, M.R., Roy, A., Islam, M.S., Uddin, M.A., Islam, M.A., Neon, M.N. & Rana, M.S. (2015). Screening of in-vitro antioxidant, brine shrimp lethality bioassay and antimicrobial activities of extracts of Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. fruit. International Journal of Pharmacy, 5(4), 1058-67.
- Khan, I., Srikakolupu, S.R., Darsipudi, S., Gotteti, S.D. & Amaranadh, C.H. (2010). Phytochemical studies and screening of leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica for its anti-microbial activity against dental pathogens. Archives of Applied Science Research, 2(2), 246-250.
- Kumar, S., Bithel, N., Kumar, S., Sen, M. & Banerjee, C. (2024). Phyto-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from Clerodendrum infortunatum L. leaf extract and evaluation of antibacterial potential. South African Journal of Botany, 164, 146-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2023.11.029
- Le Thi, V.A., Nguyen, N.L., Nguyen, Q.H., Van Dong, Q., Do, T.Y. & Nguyen T, K.O. (2021). Phytochemical Screening and Potential Antibacterial Activity of Defatted and Nondefatted Methanolic Extracts of Xao Tam Phan (Paramignya trimera (Oliv.) Guillaum) Peels against Multidrug‐Resistant Bacteria. Scientifica, 2021(1), 4233615. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4233615
- Lokanatha, O., Mamatha, S. & Reddy, D. (2013). Antimicrobial activity of Azadirachta Indica (neem) leaf, bark and seed extracts. International Journal of Research in Phytochemistry and Pharmacology, 3(1), 1-4.
- Lekshmi, N.C.J.P., Sowmia, N., Viveka, S., Brindha, J.R. & Jeeva, S. (2012). The inhibiting effect of Azadirachta indica against dental pathogens. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 2(1), 6-10.
- Petersen, P.E. (2005). The burden of oral disease: challenges to improving oral health in the 21st century. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 83, 3-3.
- Rakesh, B., Bindu, K.H. & Praveen, N. (2021). Variations in the L-DOPA content, phytochemical constituents and antioxidant activity of different germlines of Mucunapruriens (L.) DC. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 33(8), 1881-1890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2021.23293
- Raphael, E. 2012. Phytochemical constituents of some leaves extract of Aloe vera and Azadirachta indica plant species. Global Advanced Research Journal of Environmental Science and Toxicology, 1(2), 014-017.
- Rautemaa, R., Lauhio, A., Cullinan, M.P. & Seymour, G.J. 2007. Oral infections and systemic disease-an emerging problem in medicine. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 13(11), 1041-1047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01802.x
- Ray, R.R. 2023. Periodontitis: An oral disease with severe consequences. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 195(1), 17-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-022-04127-9
- Santhi, K. & Sengottuvel, R. 2016. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis of Moringa concanensis Nimmo. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 5(1), 633-640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.501.064
- Sharma, J., Rahul, S.N., Tiwari, S., Joshi, M.D., Pundhir, A. & Kumar, R. (2018). Phytochemical analysis and Antibacterial properties of Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaves extract against E.coli. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(4), 1368-1371.
- Subapriya, R. & Nagini, S., 2005. Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. Current Medicinal Chemistry-Anti-Cancer Agents, 5(2), 149-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1568011053174828
- Susmitha, S., Vidyamol, K.K., Ranganayaki, P. & Vijayaragavan, R. (2013). Phytochemical extraction and antimicrobial properties of Azadirachta indica (Neem). Global journal of pharmacology, 7(3), 316-320.
- Ujah, I.I., Nsude, C.A., Ani, O.N., Alozieuwa, U.B., Okpako, I.O. & Okwor, A.E. 2021. Phytochemicals of Neem plant (Azadirachta indica) explains its use in traditional medicine and pest control. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 14, 265-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2021.14.2.0394
- Vanka, A., Tandon, S., Rao, S.R., Udupa, N. & Ramkumar, P. (2001). The effect of indigenous Neem Azadirachta indica correction of (Adirachta indica) mouth wash on Streptococcus mutans and lactobacilli growth. Indian journal of dental research: official publication of Indian Society for Dental Research, 12(3), 133-144.
References
Al-Hashemi, Z.S.S. & Hossain, M.A. (2016). Biological activities of different Neem leaves crude extracts used locally in Ayurvedic medicine. Pacific Science Review A: Natural Science and Engineering, 18(2), 128-131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psra.2016.09.013
Ali, E., Islam, M.S., Hossen, M.I., Khatun, M.M. & Islam, M.A. (2021). Extract of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves exhibits bactericidal effect against multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria of poultry. Veterinary medicine and science, 7(5), 1921-1927. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.511
Andersa, K. N., Tamiru, M., Teka, T. A., Ali, I. M., Chane, K. T., Regasa, T. K. & Ahmed, E. H. (2024). Proximate composition, some phytochemical constituents, potential uses, and safety of neem leaf flour: A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 12, 6929-6937. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.4336
Badria, F.A .& Zidan, O.A. (2004). Natural products for dental caries prevention. Journal of Medicinal Food, 7(3), 381-384. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2004.7.381
Chaudhary, P., Sharma, R., Rupanar, S., Jadhav, S., Bongade, A., Shinde, P. & Gavit, S. (2023). Preparation and Evaluation of Herbal Mouthwash Containing Hydroalcoholic Extract of Pongamiapinnata. Asian Journal of Biological and Life Sciences, 12(1), 173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5530/ajbls.2023.12.23
CLSI (2018). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated From Animals. 5th ed. CLSI Standard VET01. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, Pennsylvania, USA.e4
Durgapal, M. & Kumar, M. (2024). A case study on usage patterns of wild edible plants in sacred groves of Kumaon Himalaya. African Journal of Biological Sciences, 6(13), 6780-6797.
Durgapal, M., Kumar, M. & Arya, A.K. (2024). Traditional indigenous values of ethnobotanical plants preserved in selected sacred groves of the Almora District (Western Himalayas), Uttarakhand, India. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 27(48), 1-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32859/era.27.48.1-16
Ezeonu, C.S. & Ejikeme, C.M. (2016). Qualitative and quantitative determination of phytochemical contents of indigenous Nigerian softwoods. New Journal of Science, 2016, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5601327
Gunathilake, K.D.P.P., Ranaweera, K.K.D.S. & Rupasinghe, H.V. (2018). In-vitro anti-inflammatory properties of selected green leavesy vegetables. Biomedicines, 6(4), 107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines6040107
Hashim, N., Abdullah, S., Hassan, L.S., Ghazali, S.R. & Jalil, R. (2021). A study of neem leaves: Identification of method and solvent in extraction. Materials Today: Proceedings, 42, 217-221. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.726
Idowu, A.O., Igbokwe, N.H., Abiodun, O.A. & Ofomata, C. (2021). Herbal mouthwash formulated with the leaf extract of Jatropha gossypiifolia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae) exhibited in-vitro antimicrobial activity against selected oral pathogens. Journal of Pharmacy & Bioresources, 18(3), 207-214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/jpb.v18i3.5
Islam, T., Hasan, M.R., Roy, A., Islam, M.S., Uddin, M.A., Islam, M.A., Neon, M.N. & Rana, M.S. (2015). Screening of in-vitro antioxidant, brine shrimp lethality bioassay and antimicrobial activities of extracts of Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. fruit. International Journal of Pharmacy, 5(4), 1058-67.
Khan, I., Srikakolupu, S.R., Darsipudi, S., Gotteti, S.D. & Amaranadh, C.H. (2010). Phytochemical studies and screening of leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica for its anti-microbial activity against dental pathogens. Archives of Applied Science Research, 2(2), 246-250.
Kumar, S., Bithel, N., Kumar, S., Sen, M. & Banerjee, C. (2024). Phyto-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles from Clerodendrum infortunatum L. leaf extract and evaluation of antibacterial potential. South African Journal of Botany, 164, 146-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2023.11.029
Le Thi, V.A., Nguyen, N.L., Nguyen, Q.H., Van Dong, Q., Do, T.Y. & Nguyen T, K.O. (2021). Phytochemical Screening and Potential Antibacterial Activity of Defatted and Nondefatted Methanolic Extracts of Xao Tam Phan (Paramignya trimera (Oliv.) Guillaum) Peels against Multidrug‐Resistant Bacteria. Scientifica, 2021(1), 4233615. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4233615
Lokanatha, O., Mamatha, S. & Reddy, D. (2013). Antimicrobial activity of Azadirachta Indica (neem) leaf, bark and seed extracts. International Journal of Research in Phytochemistry and Pharmacology, 3(1), 1-4.
Lekshmi, N.C.J.P., Sowmia, N., Viveka, S., Brindha, J.R. & Jeeva, S. (2012). The inhibiting effect of Azadirachta indica against dental pathogens. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 2(1), 6-10.
Petersen, P.E. (2005). The burden of oral disease: challenges to improving oral health in the 21st century. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 83, 3-3.
Rakesh, B., Bindu, K.H. & Praveen, N. (2021). Variations in the L-DOPA content, phytochemical constituents and antioxidant activity of different germlines of Mucunapruriens (L.) DC. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 33(8), 1881-1890. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2021.23293
Raphael, E. 2012. Phytochemical constituents of some leaves extract of Aloe vera and Azadirachta indica plant species. Global Advanced Research Journal of Environmental Science and Toxicology, 1(2), 014-017.
Rautemaa, R., Lauhio, A., Cullinan, M.P. & Seymour, G.J. 2007. Oral infections and systemic disease-an emerging problem in medicine. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 13(11), 1041-1047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01802.x
Ray, R.R. 2023. Periodontitis: An oral disease with severe consequences. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 195(1), 17-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-022-04127-9
Santhi, K. & Sengottuvel, R. 2016. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis of Moringa concanensis Nimmo. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 5(1), 633-640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2016.501.064
Sharma, J., Rahul, S.N., Tiwari, S., Joshi, M.D., Pundhir, A. & Kumar, R. (2018). Phytochemical analysis and Antibacterial properties of Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaves extract against E.coli. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(4), 1368-1371.
Subapriya, R. & Nagini, S., 2005. Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. Current Medicinal Chemistry-Anti-Cancer Agents, 5(2), 149-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1568011053174828
Susmitha, S., Vidyamol, K.K., Ranganayaki, P. & Vijayaragavan, R. (2013). Phytochemical extraction and antimicrobial properties of Azadirachta indica (Neem). Global journal of pharmacology, 7(3), 316-320.
Ujah, I.I., Nsude, C.A., Ani, O.N., Alozieuwa, U.B., Okpako, I.O. & Okwor, A.E. 2021. Phytochemicals of Neem plant (Azadirachta indica) explains its use in traditional medicine and pest control. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 14, 265-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2021.14.2.0394
Vanka, A., Tandon, S., Rao, S.R., Udupa, N. & Ramkumar, P. (2001). The effect of indigenous Neem Azadirachta indica correction of (Adirachta indica) mouth wash on Streptococcus mutans and lactobacilli growth. Indian journal of dental research: official publication of Indian Society for Dental Research, 12(3), 133-144.