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Abstract
This study investigates the dynamic changes in the concentrations of various volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in edible oils subjected to prolonged heating. Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a UV detector at 254 nm, we measured the concentrations of α-methyl styrene, β-methyl styrene, ortho xylene, meta xylene, para xylene, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, propyl benzene, isopropyl benzene, and iso-butyl benzene in coconut, cottonseed, groundnut, mustard, palm, rice bran, sesame, sunflower, rapeseed, safflower, and soybean oils over heating durations of 0, 2, 4, and 6 hours. The results provide a detailed illustration of the behaviour of these compounds under heat: Mustard oil initially had high concentrations of α-methyl styrene (103.00 µg/Kg) and β-methyl styrene (110.00 µg/Kg) which decreased to 46.00 µg/Kg and 52.00 µg/Kg. Cottonseed oil started with high benzene levels (48.00 µg/Kg) which were significantly reduced to 3.00 µg/Kg. Rice bran oil displayed an initial benzene concentration of 10.00 µg/Kg that reduced to 2.10 µg/Kg. Coconut oil, starting at 36.00 µg/Kg of benzene, saw a reduction to 3.00 µg/Kg. Palm oil began at 21.00 µg/Kg of benzene and decreased markedly to 0.02 µg/Kg. The reduction rates varied, indicating that different oil types have distinct thermal stability and volatile emission behaviours under similar heating conditions. This comprehensive dataset underlines important implications for food safety, especially concerning the selection and use of cooking oils in environments where prolonged heating is common, affecting both culinary quality and occupational health safety.
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References
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References
Adeleke, B.S. & Babalola, O.O. (2020). Oilseed crop sunflower (Helianthus annuus) as a source of food: Nutritional and health benefits. Food Science & Nutrition, 8(9), 4666-4684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1783
Ahmad, R., Ilyas, H.N., Li, B., Sultan, M., Amjad, M., Aleem, M., Abbas, A., Imran, M.A. & Riaz, F. (2022). Current challenges and future prospect of biomass cooking and heating stoves in Asian Countries. Frontiers in Energy Research, 10, 880064. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2022.880064
Antonelli, M., Donelli, D., Barbieri, G., Valussi, M., Maggini, V. & Firenzuoli, F. (2020). Forest volatile organic compounds and their effects on human health: A state-of-the-art review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186506
Atamaleki, A., Motesaddi Zarandi, S., Massoudinejad, M., Samimi, K., Fakhri, Y., Ghorbanian, M. & Mousavi Khaneghah, A. (2023). The effect of frying process on the emission of the volatile organic compounds and monocyclic aromatic group (BTEX). International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 103(18), 6169-6182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2021.1950148
Bulanda, S. & Janoszka, B. (2022). Consumption of thermally processed meat containing carcinogenic compounds (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic aromatic amines) versus a risk of some cancers in humans and the possibility of reducing their formation by natural food additives—a literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4781. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084781
Chen, Y., Shen, G., Huang, Y., Wang, R., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Household air pollution and its effects on health in rural China. Environmental Pollution, 214, 596-603.
Dangal, A., Tahergorabi, R., Acharya, D., Timsina, P., Rai, K., Dahal, S., Acharya, P. & Giuffrè, A.M. (2024). Review on deep-fat fried foods: physical and chemical attributes and consequences of high consumption. European Food Research and Technology, 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-024-04583-z
Dass, A., Srivastava, S. & Chaudhary, G. (2021). Air pollution: A review and analysis using fuzzy techniques in Indian scenario. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 22, 101441. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.101441
Fetisov, V., Gonopolsky, A.M., Davardoost, H., Ghanbari, A.R. & Mohammadi, A.H. (2023). Regulation and impact of VOC and CO2 emissions on low‐carbon energy systems resilient to climate change: A case study on an environmental issue in the oil and gas industry. Energy Science & Engineering, 11(4), 1516-1535. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ese3.1383
Ganesan, K. & Xu, B. (2020). Deep frying cooking oils promote the high risk of metastases in the breast-A critical review. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 144, 111648. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2020.111648
Khalil, M., Iqbal, M., Turan, V., Tauqeer, H.M., Farhad, M., Ahmed, A. & Yasin, S. (2022). Household chemicals and their impact. In Environmental Micropollutants (pp. 201-232). Elsevier. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90555-8.00022-2
Kuppusamy, S., Maddela, N.R., Megharaj, M., Venkateswarlu, K., Kuppusamy, S., Maddela, N.R., Megharaj, M. & Venkateswarlu, K. (2020). Impact of total petroleum hydrocarbons on human health. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Environmental Fate, Toxicity, and Remediation, 139-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24035-6_6
Machado, M., Rodriguez-Alcalá, L.M., Gomes, A.M. & Pintado, M. (2023). Vegetable oils oxidation: mechanisms, consequences and protective strategies. Food Reviews International, 39(7), 4180-4197. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2022.2026378
Singh, H., Bhardwaj, N., Arya, S.K. & Khatri, M. (2020). Environmental impacts of oil spills and their remediation by magnetic nanomaterials. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 14, 100305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100305
Singh, A., Bajpai, A., & Kumar, S. (2018). The impact of traditional biomass stoves on indoor air quality in rural India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(16), 15562-15572.
Tao, C., He, L., Zhou, X., Li, H., Ren, Q., Han, H., Hu, S., Su, S., Wang, Y. & Xiang, J. (2023). Review of emission characteristics and purification methods of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in cooking oil fume. Processes, 11(3), 705. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030705
Veloso, A.C., Rodrigues, N., Ouarouer, Y., Zaghdoudi, K., Pereira, J.A. & Peres, A.M. (2020). A kinetic‐thermodynamic study of the effect of the cultivar/total phenols on the oxidative stability of olive oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 97(6), 625-636. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aocs.12351
Zhang, Y., Li, X., Lu, X., Sun, H. & Wang, F. (2021). Effect of oilseed roasting on the quality, flavor and safety of oil: A comprehensive review. Food Research International, 150, 110791. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110791
Zhang, H., Wang, Y., & Li, X. (2021). Health risks from reused cooking oils in street food vending. Food Science and Technology International, 27(3), 206-218.
Shubhankar, B., Ambade, B., Singh, S.K., & Meshram, S.G. (2016). Characteristics and seasonal variation of carbonaceous and water-soluble organic components in the aerosols over East India. Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 32(1), 523-532. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13005/ojc/320160
Shubhankar, B. & Ambade, B. (2016). A critical comparative study of indoor air pollution from household cooking fuels and its effect on health. Oriental Journal of Chemistry, 32, 473-480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13005/ojc/320154