Main Article Content
Abstract
All in developing nations about 50% population rely on solid unclean fuel in the form of animal dung cake, crop residue and wood for household energy and cooking. Solid biomass fuel is typically burnt in traditional cooking stove or chulha without chimney with incomplete combustion. As well as in rural areas children and women must go through the drudgery and health risk of collecting crop residue and fire wood. So the scheme of “Ujjwala Yojana” was commenced by the Prime Minister of India in 2016 and Rs. 8000 Cr. has been granted for the Yojana. The aim of this scheme was to provide safety for children and women in rural areas from health risk by furnishing with clean and safe cooking energy Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), so that they don’t have to deal their health issues in poor ventilated and smoky, blackish kitchen. Villagers were used traditional biomass stoves or chulha without chimney for cooking, boiling water and used for cooking cattle food. Aim of this review was to find out household air quality of rural areas using different solid unclean biomass fuel for example cow dung cake, crop remains and wood in terms of gaseous pollutants and particulate matter in kitchen area so the higher concentration of different gaseous pollutants i.e. carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) were reported in the kitchen area during cooking hours. It can be concluded based on literature reviews that, there is significant health risk associated with increased concentration of gaseous pollutants and suspended particulate matters.
Keywords
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2019 (C) ASEA
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
- Banerjee, T., Kumar, M., Mall, R. K. and Singh, R. S. 2016. Airing ‘clean air’ in Clean India Mission. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24: 7.
- Barnes, D. F., Openshaw, K., Smith, K. R. and Van der Plas, R. 1994. What makes people cook with improved biomass stoves? Acomparative international review of stove programs, World Bank Technical Paper, Energy Series, 242 Washington DC.
- Bascom, R., Bromberg, P. A., Costa, D. L., Devlin, R., Dockery, D. W., Frampton, M. W., Lambert, W., Samet, J.M., Speizer, F.E. and Utell, M. 1996. Health effects of outdoor air pollution. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 153(2): 477-498.
- Bose, N. 2017. Raising consumption through India’s national rural employment guarantee scheme. World Development, 96: 245-63.
- Bruce, N. 2000. USAID/WHO. Global technical consultation on the health impacts of indoor air pollution and household energy in developing countries, Washington DC.
- Census, 2011. Houses, Household Amenities and Assets Data, 2001-2011.
- Chakrabarti, S., Kishore, S. and Roy, D. 2016. Effectiveness of Food Subsidies in Raising Healthy Food Consumption: Public Distribution of Pulses in India, Discussion Paper 1523 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute).
- Chandramouli, C. and General, R. 2011. Census of India 2011. Provisional Population Total New Delhi Gov India.
- Cohen, A. J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H. R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., Balakrishnan, K., Brunekreef, B., Dandona, L. and Dandona, R. 2017. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The Lancet, 389: 1907-18.
- Collaborators, GBDRF., Forouzanfar, M. H., Alexander, L., Anderson, H. R., Bachman, V. F. and Biryukov, S. 2015. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 386 (10010): 2287-323.
- Cooper, J. A. 1980. Environmental impact of residential wood combustion emissions and its implications. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 30: 855–886.
- CPCB, 2014. National Ambient Air Quality Status & Trends. Central Pollution Control Board. Ministry of Environment & Forests. Government of India: New Delhi.
- Gurley, E. S., Salje, H., Homaira, N., Ram, P. K., Haque, R., Petri, W. A. J. R., Bresee, J., Moss, W. J., Luby, S. P., Breysse, P. and Azziz, B. E. 2013. Seasonal concentrations and determinants of indoor particulate matter in a low-income community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environmental Research, 121: 11-16.
- Harris, G. 2014. Cities in India Among the Most Polluted, W.H.O. Says. The New York Times.
- Harris, G. 2014. Delhi Wakes Up to an Air Pollution Problem It Cannot Ignore. The New York Times.
- Helios, R. E. 1996. Impact of mining and metallurgical industries on the environment in Poland. Applied Geochemistry, 11: 3-9.
- ICMR Bulletin, 2001. Indoor Air pollution in India A major environmental and public health concern. 31(5), ISSN 0377-4910.
- Jafta, N., Jeena, P., Barregard, L.and Naidoo, R. 2015. Childhood tuberculosis and exposure to indoor air pollution: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 19: 596-602.
- Jain, V., Dey, S. and Chowdhury, S. 2017. Ambient PM 2.5 exposure and premature mortality burden in the holy city Varanasi, India. Environmental Pollution, 226:182–9.
- Joshi, P. C. and Semwal, M. 2011. Distribution of air pollutants in ambient air of district Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India: A case study after establishment of State Industrial Development Corporation. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2:1.
- Kelly, F. J. and Fussell, J. C. 2012. Size, source and chemical composition as determinants of toxicity attributable to ambient particular matter. Atmospheric Environment, 60: 504–526.
- Laumbach, R. J. and Kipen, H. M. 2012. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 129: 3-11.
- Lin, H. H., Suk, C. W., Lo, H. L., Huang, R. Y., Enarson, D. A. and Chiang, C. Y. 2014. Indoor air pollution from solid fuel and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 18: 613-21.
- Mahesh, K. M., deputy secretary (LPG), Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Petroleum Planning & Analysis Cell (PPAC), India.
- Mehta, S., 2002. Characterizing exposures to indoor air pollution from household solid fuel use, Dissertation submitted to University of California, Berkeley.
- Mondal, N. K., Konar, S., Banerjee, A. and Datta, J. K. 2011. A Comparative Assessment of Status of Indoor Air Pollution of Few Selected Families of Rural and Urban Area of Burdwan Town and its Adjoining Area. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(5): 736-743.
- Naik, A. S. 2016. Coal mining and organic pollutants: a case of Mahanadi basin coalfields, India. In book: Geostatistical and Geospatial Approaches for the Characterization of Natural Resources in the Environment, 373-379.
- National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2007. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International. India: Volume 1. Mumbai, India.
- National Sample Survey Organization. (NSS), 2000. New Delhi: Department of Statistics, Government of India. Household consumer expenditure in India. Report No: 453.
- Oliveira, M. L., Marostega, F., Taffarel, S. R., Saikia, B. K., Waanders, F. B., DaBoit K., Baruah, B. P. and Silva, L. F. 2014. Nanomineralogical investigation of coal and fly ashes from coal-based captive power plant (India): an introduction of occupational health hazards. Science of the Total Environment, 468–469.
- Parikh (ed.) 1999. India Development Report, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development. Oxford University Press.
- Petroleum Planning & Analysis Cell (PPAC), India. 2016. Assessment report: Primary survey on household cooking fuel usage and willingness to convert to LPG.
- Pope, D. P., Mishra, V., Thompson, L., Siddiqui, A. R., Rehfuess, E. A., Weber, M. and Bruce, N. G. 2010. Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries. Epidemiologic reviews, 32:70-81.
- Prasad, R., Singh, A., Garg, R. and Hosmane, G. B. 2012. Biomass fuel exposure and respiratory diseases in India. BioScience Trends, 2012; 6(5) : 219-228.
- Rao, M. N. and Rao, H. V. N. 1986. Air pollution. TATA Mc Graw Hill publishing company, New Delhi.
- Ravilla, T. D., Gupta, S., Ravindran, R. D., Vashist, P., Krishnan, T., Maraini, G., Chakravarthy, U. and Fletcher, A. E. 2016. Use of cooking fuels and cataract in a population-based study: The India Eye Disease Study. Environmental Health Perspective, 124: 1857-62.
- Reddy, A. K. N., Williams, R. H. and Johansson, T. B. 1996. Energy after Rio: prospects and challenges. United Nations Publications, New York.
- Ritz, B. and Wilhelm, M. 2008. Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: methodologic issues in an emerging field. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 102: 182-90.
- Smith, K., Mehta, S. and Feuz, M. 2003. Indoor smoke from solid fuels. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Major Risk Factors. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJL. Geneva, World Health Organization.
- Smith, K. R. and Liu, Y. 1993. Indoor air pollution in developing countries. In Samet (ed.). Epidemiology of lung cancer: lung biology in health and disease. Marcel Dekker, New York.
- Smith, K. R. and Mehta, S. 2000. The burden of disease from indoor air pollution in developing countries: comparison of estimates. Presented at the USAID/WHO Global Technical Consultation on the Health Impacts of Indoor Air Pollution and Household Energy in Developing Countries, Washington DC.
- Smith, K. R. 1987. Biofuels, Air Pollution and Health. A Global Review. Plenum Press, New York.
- Smith, K. R. 1987. Biofuels, air pollution and health: a global review. Plenum Press, New York.
- Smith, K. R. 2000. The national burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution. Proc Nat Acad Sci., 97: 13286 - 13293.
- Smith, K. R. 2003. Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor Air Pollution Energy and Health for poor. News Letter, 1.
- Smith, K. R., Aggarwal, A. L. and Dave, R. M. 1983. Air pollution and rural biomass fuels in developing countries: a pilot village study in India and implications for research and policy. Atmospheric Environment, 17: 2343-2362.
- Smith, K. R. and Liu, Y. 1994. Indoor air pollution in developing countries. In Samet (ed.). Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. Lung Biology in Health and Disease. Marcel Dekker, New York.
- Smith, K. R., Bruce, N., Balakrishnan, K., Adair, R. H., Balmes, J. and Chafe, Z. 2014. Millions Dead: How Do We Know and What Does It Mean? Methods Used in the Comparative Risk Assessment of Household Air Pollution. Annual Review Public Health, 35(1): 185–206.
- Smith, K. R., Samet, J. M., Romieu, I., and Bruce, N. 2000. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children. Thorax, 55: 518–532.
- Sofilic, T., Brnardic, I., Simunic, M.V. and Sorsa, A. 2013. Soil pollution caused by landfilling of nonhazardous waste from steel production processes. Journal of Chemists and Chemical Engineers, 62: 381-388.
- The Hindu, 2015. Improve Quality of Indoor Air.The Ministry of Rural Development commenced the Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) in June 2011 through a comprehensive door to door enumeration.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter.
- UNEP, 2006.United Nations Environment Programme Annual Evaluation Report UN Environment.
- United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Revisions to the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter. Federal Register 62: 38651- 38701.
- WHO, 1999. Guidelines for air quality. WHO Publications, Geneva.
- WHO, 2002. World health report: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva.
- WHO, 2006. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
- WHO, 2007. Indoor Air Pollution: National Burden of Disease Estimates. Geneva, Switzerland.
- WHO, 2012. Household air pollution and health. Factsheet N°292. Retrieved 2014, March 29.
- WHO, 2015. Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Geneva, Switzerland.
- WHO, 2016. WHO Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database.
- Wylie, B. J., Kishashu, Y., Matechi, E., Zhou, Z., Coull, B., Abioye A. I., Dionisio, K. L., Mugusi, F., Premji, Z. and Fawzi, W. 2017. Maternal exposure to carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter during pregnancy in an urban Tanzanian cohort. Indoor Air, 27: 136-46.
- Zlauddin, A. and Siddiqui, N. A. 2006. Air quality index (AQI) A tool to determine ambient air quality. Pollution Research, 25: 885-887.
References
Banerjee, T., Kumar, M., Mall, R. K. and Singh, R. S. 2016. Airing ‘clean air’ in Clean India Mission. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24: 7.
Barnes, D. F., Openshaw, K., Smith, K. R. and Van der Plas, R. 1994. What makes people cook with improved biomass stoves? Acomparative international review of stove programs, World Bank Technical Paper, Energy Series, 242 Washington DC.
Bascom, R., Bromberg, P. A., Costa, D. L., Devlin, R., Dockery, D. W., Frampton, M. W., Lambert, W., Samet, J.M., Speizer, F.E. and Utell, M. 1996. Health effects of outdoor air pollution. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 153(2): 477-498.
Bose, N. 2017. Raising consumption through India’s national rural employment guarantee scheme. World Development, 96: 245-63.
Bruce, N. 2000. USAID/WHO. Global technical consultation on the health impacts of indoor air pollution and household energy in developing countries, Washington DC.
Census, 2011. Houses, Household Amenities and Assets Data, 2001-2011.
Chakrabarti, S., Kishore, S. and Roy, D. 2016. Effectiveness of Food Subsidies in Raising Healthy Food Consumption: Public Distribution of Pulses in India, Discussion Paper 1523 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute).
Chandramouli, C. and General, R. 2011. Census of India 2011. Provisional Population Total New Delhi Gov India.
Cohen, A. J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H. R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., Balakrishnan, K., Brunekreef, B., Dandona, L. and Dandona, R. 2017. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The Lancet, 389: 1907-18.
Collaborators, GBDRF., Forouzanfar, M. H., Alexander, L., Anderson, H. R., Bachman, V. F. and Biryukov, S. 2015. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 386 (10010): 2287-323.
Cooper, J. A. 1980. Environmental impact of residential wood combustion emissions and its implications. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 30: 855–886.
CPCB, 2014. National Ambient Air Quality Status & Trends. Central Pollution Control Board. Ministry of Environment & Forests. Government of India: New Delhi.
Gurley, E. S., Salje, H., Homaira, N., Ram, P. K., Haque, R., Petri, W. A. J. R., Bresee, J., Moss, W. J., Luby, S. P., Breysse, P. and Azziz, B. E. 2013. Seasonal concentrations and determinants of indoor particulate matter in a low-income community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environmental Research, 121: 11-16.
Harris, G. 2014. Cities in India Among the Most Polluted, W.H.O. Says. The New York Times.
Harris, G. 2014. Delhi Wakes Up to an Air Pollution Problem It Cannot Ignore. The New York Times.
Helios, R. E. 1996. Impact of mining and metallurgical industries on the environment in Poland. Applied Geochemistry, 11: 3-9.
ICMR Bulletin, 2001. Indoor Air pollution in India A major environmental and public health concern. 31(5), ISSN 0377-4910.
Jafta, N., Jeena, P., Barregard, L.and Naidoo, R. 2015. Childhood tuberculosis and exposure to indoor air pollution: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 19: 596-602.
Jain, V., Dey, S. and Chowdhury, S. 2017. Ambient PM 2.5 exposure and premature mortality burden in the holy city Varanasi, India. Environmental Pollution, 226:182–9.
Joshi, P. C. and Semwal, M. 2011. Distribution of air pollutants in ambient air of district Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India: A case study after establishment of State Industrial Development Corporation. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2:1.
Kelly, F. J. and Fussell, J. C. 2012. Size, source and chemical composition as determinants of toxicity attributable to ambient particular matter. Atmospheric Environment, 60: 504–526.
Laumbach, R. J. and Kipen, H. M. 2012. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 129: 3-11.
Lin, H. H., Suk, C. W., Lo, H. L., Huang, R. Y., Enarson, D. A. and Chiang, C. Y. 2014. Indoor air pollution from solid fuel and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 18: 613-21.
Mahesh, K. M., deputy secretary (LPG), Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Petroleum Planning & Analysis Cell (PPAC), India.
Mehta, S., 2002. Characterizing exposures to indoor air pollution from household solid fuel use, Dissertation submitted to University of California, Berkeley.
Mondal, N. K., Konar, S., Banerjee, A. and Datta, J. K. 2011. A Comparative Assessment of Status of Indoor Air Pollution of Few Selected Families of Rural and Urban Area of Burdwan Town and its Adjoining Area. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(5): 736-743.
Naik, A. S. 2016. Coal mining and organic pollutants: a case of Mahanadi basin coalfields, India. In book: Geostatistical and Geospatial Approaches for the Characterization of Natural Resources in the Environment, 373-379.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2007. International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International. India: Volume 1. Mumbai, India.
National Sample Survey Organization. (NSS), 2000. New Delhi: Department of Statistics, Government of India. Household consumer expenditure in India. Report No: 453.
Oliveira, M. L., Marostega, F., Taffarel, S. R., Saikia, B. K., Waanders, F. B., DaBoit K., Baruah, B. P. and Silva, L. F. 2014. Nanomineralogical investigation of coal and fly ashes from coal-based captive power plant (India): an introduction of occupational health hazards. Science of the Total Environment, 468–469.
Parikh (ed.) 1999. India Development Report, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development. Oxford University Press.
Petroleum Planning & Analysis Cell (PPAC), India. 2016. Assessment report: Primary survey on household cooking fuel usage and willingness to convert to LPG.
Pope, D. P., Mishra, V., Thompson, L., Siddiqui, A. R., Rehfuess, E. A., Weber, M. and Bruce, N. G. 2010. Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries. Epidemiologic reviews, 32:70-81.
Prasad, R., Singh, A., Garg, R. and Hosmane, G. B. 2012. Biomass fuel exposure and respiratory diseases in India. BioScience Trends, 2012; 6(5) : 219-228.
Rao, M. N. and Rao, H. V. N. 1986. Air pollution. TATA Mc Graw Hill publishing company, New Delhi.
Ravilla, T. D., Gupta, S., Ravindran, R. D., Vashist, P., Krishnan, T., Maraini, G., Chakravarthy, U. and Fletcher, A. E. 2016. Use of cooking fuels and cataract in a population-based study: The India Eye Disease Study. Environmental Health Perspective, 124: 1857-62.
Reddy, A. K. N., Williams, R. H. and Johansson, T. B. 1996. Energy after Rio: prospects and challenges. United Nations Publications, New York.
Ritz, B. and Wilhelm, M. 2008. Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: methodologic issues in an emerging field. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 102: 182-90.
Smith, K., Mehta, S. and Feuz, M. 2003. Indoor smoke from solid fuels. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Major Risk Factors. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJL. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Smith, K. R. and Liu, Y. 1993. Indoor air pollution in developing countries. In Samet (ed.). Epidemiology of lung cancer: lung biology in health and disease. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Smith, K. R. and Mehta, S. 2000. The burden of disease from indoor air pollution in developing countries: comparison of estimates. Presented at the USAID/WHO Global Technical Consultation on the Health Impacts of Indoor Air Pollution and Household Energy in Developing Countries, Washington DC.
Smith, K. R. 1987. Biofuels, Air Pollution and Health. A Global Review. Plenum Press, New York.
Smith, K. R. 1987. Biofuels, air pollution and health: a global review. Plenum Press, New York.
Smith, K. R. 2000. The national burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution. Proc Nat Acad Sci., 97: 13286 - 13293.
Smith, K. R. 2003. Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor Air Pollution Energy and Health for poor. News Letter, 1.
Smith, K. R., Aggarwal, A. L. and Dave, R. M. 1983. Air pollution and rural biomass fuels in developing countries: a pilot village study in India and implications for research and policy. Atmospheric Environment, 17: 2343-2362.
Smith, K. R. and Liu, Y. 1994. Indoor air pollution in developing countries. In Samet (ed.). Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. Lung Biology in Health and Disease. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Smith, K. R., Bruce, N., Balakrishnan, K., Adair, R. H., Balmes, J. and Chafe, Z. 2014. Millions Dead: How Do We Know and What Does It Mean? Methods Used in the Comparative Risk Assessment of Household Air Pollution. Annual Review Public Health, 35(1): 185–206.
Smith, K. R., Samet, J. M., Romieu, I., and Bruce, N. 2000. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children. Thorax, 55: 518–532.
Sofilic, T., Brnardic, I., Simunic, M.V. and Sorsa, A. 2013. Soil pollution caused by landfilling of nonhazardous waste from steel production processes. Journal of Chemists and Chemical Engineers, 62: 381-388.
The Hindu, 2015. Improve Quality of Indoor Air.The Ministry of Rural Development commenced the Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) in June 2011 through a comprehensive door to door enumeration.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter.
UNEP, 2006.United Nations Environment Programme Annual Evaluation Report UN Environment.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Revisions to the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter. Federal Register 62: 38651- 38701.
WHO, 1999. Guidelines for air quality. WHO Publications, Geneva.
WHO, 2002. World health report: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva.
WHO, 2006. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
WHO, 2007. Indoor Air Pollution: National Burden of Disease Estimates. Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO, 2012. Household air pollution and health. Factsheet N°292. Retrieved 2014, March 29.
WHO, 2015. Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Geneva, Switzerland.
WHO, 2016. WHO Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database.
Wylie, B. J., Kishashu, Y., Matechi, E., Zhou, Z., Coull, B., Abioye A. I., Dionisio, K. L., Mugusi, F., Premji, Z. and Fawzi, W. 2017. Maternal exposure to carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter during pregnancy in an urban Tanzanian cohort. Indoor Air, 27: 136-46.
Zlauddin, A. and Siddiqui, N. A. 2006. Air quality index (AQI) A tool to determine ambient air quality. Pollution Research, 25: 885-887.